A thin, cold, wind-blown snow. Max. depth approx. 75 cm. Usually found above or north of tree line. Consists of a basal layer of depth hoar overlain by multiple wind slabs.

At the melting temperature, liquid water may partially fill the pore space. In general, therefore, all three phases of water - ice, vapor, and liquid - can coexist in snow on the ground.

The total snow and ice on the ground, including both new snow and the previous snow and ice which have not melted. NSIDC glossary

“Watts’ objective is to increase sales and increase sales and earnings by expanding into new markets, continuously developing new products for existing markets, making key acquisitions and reducing manufacturing costs,” Watts says.

Duplex strainers by Mueller Steam Specialty can be used for applications where critical systems cannot be shut down for strainer basket cleaning, according to the company. Such systems include cooling water, compressors, condensers, fire lines, fuel lines, chemical process systems, pump suction application and similar services.

The accumulation of snow at a given site and time; term to be preferably used in conjunction with the physical and mechanical properties of the snow on the ground. UNESCO glossary

Mueller Steam Specialty’s Simplex Basket Strainers are required when the application requires a strainer with an extremely large capacity. Most of the strainers have an open area ratio of 6-to-1 with even greater open ratios available.

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In general, the accumulation of snow on the ground surface, and in particular, the areal extent of snow-covered ground (NSIDC, 2008); term to be preferably used in conjunction with the climatologic relevance of snow on the ground. UNESCO glossary

The terms snowpack and snow cover are often used interchangeably but they do have slightly different meanings. The term snowpack is used when referring to the physical and mechanical properties of the snow on the ground. The term snow cover is used when referring to the snow accumulation on ground, and in particular, the areal extent of the snow-covered ground. This distinction will be respected for the most part. Both snowpack and snow cover refer to the total snow and ice on the ground, including both new snow and any existing un-melted snow and ice.

RO membranes typically remove 90-99.9% of suspended and dissolved solids and can remove bacteria and viruses.

Mueller Steam SpecialtyBasket strainer

A laterally extensive accumulation of snow on the ground that persists through winter and melts in the spring and summer. AMS glossary

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“Watts’ devices offer the right solutions for its customers’ residential and commercial water control needs,” the company states.

In almost all cases, the HEC-HMS snowmelt model is applied to seasonal snow.  Seasonal snow is snow that accumulates during one season and does not last for more than one year. An example of seasonal snow is shown in Figure 1. The chart on this slide displays the Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) measured on Mount Alyeska in Alaska over the winter of 2000-01. Notice that the chart starts with a near monotonic increase in SWE up to the Annual Maximum SWE. This is the accumulation period. After the Annual Maximum SWE the ablation or melting period occurs. In many cases, the accumulation period is longer than the ablation period.  In this case, the accumulation lasts for 7 months and the melt for 2 months. Other sites will vary in the timing and length of the accumulation and ablation periods. Some sites may have two or more accumulation periods and the SWE may drop to zero between the periods.

Mueller SteamY Strainer

The transfer of water molecules directly from the ice crystals to water vapor occurs by sublimation. Sublimation can occur over the entire temperature range at which snow exists. Sublimation removes heat from the snowpack to provide the ice molecules enough energy to escape from the snow ice crystal surface. Sublimation cools the snowpack. The relationship between the amount of ice removed by sublimation and the amount of heat removed defines the latent heat of sublimation of ice. The transfer of water from the vapor state to the snowpack occurs by condensation. Condensation adds heat to the snowpack to remove the energy of the water vapor molecules so they can join the liquid water or ice crystals that form the snowpack. Condensation warms the snowpack.

The company now boasts more than 300,000 square feet of manufacturing space devoted to Mueller’s product lines. Along with pipeline and specialty strainers, the company also manufacturers check and butterfly valves.

Founded in 1874, the Watts Water Technologies group of companies says it designs and manufactures valves and related products that promote the comfort and safety of people and the quality, conservation and control of water used in commercial, residential, industrial and municipal applications. Watts Water Technologies Inc. was incorporated in Delaware and has operations in North America, Europe, Asia and Africa.

A thin, except in drifts, moderately cold snow cover with substantial wind drifting. Max. depth approx. 1 m. Wind slabs and drifts common.

For its quality focus, Watts provides high-quality drinking and process water through its range of reverse osmosis water purification systems, which range from under-sink residential systems to high-volume of commercial systems. The company’s backflow-prevention devices protect the water supply against the reverse flow of water in piping systems, ensuring the quality of drinking water.

Due to the intermittent nature of precipitation, the action of wind and the continuously ongoing metamorphism of snow, distinct layers of snow build up the snowpack. However, in hydrologic applications, the snowpack is treated as a single layer and the properties of the snowpack must represent the conditions of the entire layer from the snow surface to the ground. This single layer representation is required by the practical limits of current hydrologic practice, and the currently available data on snow observed in the field. Generally, in practice, the distinct properties of individual layers of the snowpack are not known.

Wind slab: Both wind crusts and wind slabs are layers of small, broken or abraded, closely packed and well-sintered particles.

Mueller Steam Specialtystrainer

Mueller Steam Specialty also manufactures fireline strainers for fireline services. These units are approved by Underwriters Laboratories and are designed specifically for applications like automatic water sprinklers and spray systems in firelines. The company says the large open area ratio helps prevent problems typically caused by the clogging of the screen.

A thin to moderately deep low-density cold snow cover. Max. depth: 120 cm. Found in cold climates in forests where wind, initial snow density, and average winter air temperatures are all low. By late winter consists of 50% to 80% depth hoar covered by low-density new snow.

Mueller Steam Specialty says it supplies its customers worldwide with all of their requirements for “Y” strainers. Whether the need is a for a low-pressure cast iron threaded strainer or a larger high-pressure special alloy unit with a custom cap design, Mueller Steam’s Y strainers will fit most applications.

Watts’ ZeroWaste reverse osmosis system provides quality water to homeowners while conserving water. Its hot water recirculating systems deliver instant hot water at the tap, conserving water and energy.

Hydrologic snowmelt models generally do not model snow metamorphism directly. Some approaches do model the changes in the snowpack density and albedo that result from metamorphism, as will be shown later.

The company explains that its basket strainers are available in a variety of combinations of materials, pressures, end connections and several cover configurations.

For comfort, Watts manufactures engineered hydronic radiant heating and snow-melting systems as well as electric radiant floor-warming systems and PEX tubing for residential and commercial installations. The group also provides a line of boiler safety and control products for solar, ground and wall-hung boilers.

Temperature gradients and sub-freezing temperatures are more likely to exist in the snowpack during the accumulation period. Uniform temperatures throughout the snowpack at 32°F (0°C) are most likely to exist during the ablation period, especially during periods of continuous snowmelt.

MuellerY strainer catalog pdf

The company says its Ball-Plex duplex strainer – which come in sizes of 3/4 to 6 inches – offers bubble-tight seating, true in-line maintainability, easy seat replacement and long, trouble-free service life in a simple and rugged design.

A highly variable snow cover, depending on the solar radiation effects and local wind patterns. Usually deeper than associated type of snow cover from adjacent low-lands.

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Mueller Steam Specialty is able to supply custom-designed fabricated units from its own fabrication division within its 300,000-square-foot facility in St. Pauls. The company says this enables its operation to provide customers with quick, economical delivery of products designed and built by the industry’s most experienced manufacturer.

Throughout its international operations, the Watts Water Technologies family of companies relies on five “pillars” as focus areas: comfort, quality, conservation, safety and control.

“We maintain a large stock of both standard and special sizes and materials,” the company says. “This stock includes end connections of threaded, flanged, socket weld, butt weld, solder, silbraze and grooved ends. We also have units with screwed caps, bolted caps, hinge-type covers and swing-type clamp covers.”

There is a tremendous amount of variability in seasonal snow. The range of seasonal snow characteristics has been catalogued and classified by Sturm et al (1995). They divided seasonal snow covers in to six classes: tundra, taiga, alpine, prairie, maritime, and ephemeral. They found it difficult to classify the snow cover of mountainous regions. Mountain snow covers have as their chief attribute a high degree of lateral or spatial variability. Wind turbulence over steep, complicated terrain and highly variable solar radiation distribution are the chief causes of this variability. So, the mountain snow class is used to flag regions of high snow variability. They found that these snow classes could be discriminated by a group of variables that they felt were relatively easy to measure. These variables are the winter average values of snow depth, air temperature, snow-ground interface temperature, and bulk density.  The Table and Figure below describes the seasonal snow classifications and locations.

A thin extremely warm snow cover. Ranges from 0 to 50 cm. Shortly after it is deposited, it begins melting, with basal melting common. Melt features common. Often consists of a single snowfall, which melts away, then a new snow cover reforms at the next snowfall.

An intermediate to cold deep snow cover. Max depth approx. 250 cm. Often alternate thick and thin layers, some wind affected. Basal depth hoar common, as well as occasional wind crusts. Most new snowfalls are low density. Melt features occur but are generally insignificant.

Mueller Steam specialtycheck valve

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The company also says it works closely with standards-setting agencies and plumbing and building code officials to develop plumbing regulations that maximize safety for customers. Along with its traditional line of safety valves, Watts provides thermostatic hot water mixing valves, hydronic heating system safety units and hot water safety products.

Today, Mueller Steam Specialty is one of the world’s largest suppliers of strainers and among the top providers of specialty products serving the valve industry.  What helped solidify this position in the industry was Watts Water Technologies Inc., which acquired Mueller Steam Specialty in 2005. Watts Water pumped resources and support into Mueller Team, which have enabled the company to consolidate previous efforts while simultaneously planning for future growth and expansion in products and services.

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Phase change describes the transition between ice and liquid water, between ice and water vapor, and between liquid water and water vapor.  Adding heat to snow causes the snow to become warmer until it reaches the ice/water equilibrium temperature, 0°C (32°F). (This is the value for fresh water under the normal range of atmospheric pressure.) The relationship between the amount of heat added (or removed) per unit volume of snow and rate of temperature increase (or decrease) is determined by the snow density and the specific heat of ice. Once the temperature of snow reaches the ice/water equilibrium temperature further addition of heat will not change the snow temperature but will cause the snow to melt, to change phase to liquid water. The relationship between the amount of heat added and the amount of liquid water created is determined by the latent heat of fusion of water.

The first process of metamorphism occurs in all snowpacks. Its beginnings lay in the incredible variety of ice crystal shapes deposited on a snowpack. Something most crystal shapes share in common on reaching the snowpack is large surface-area-to-volume ratios. These large ratios are created during the rapid crystal growth that occurs in the atmosphere when snow crystals form. When the ice crystals are incorporated into the snowpack they no longer grow and tend towards their spherical equilibrium form. Snow metamorphism describes the change in the snow crystals and grains to less angular, more rounded forms with time.  This type of metamorphism causes a gradual increase in the snowpack density, a reduction in the surface reflection of sunlight (described by the surface albedo) and changes other snowpack properties with time. Metamorphism occurs quickly when the snowpack is melting. This rapid metamorphism causes the surface albedo to decline relatively rapidly. The decline in albedo increases the shortwave radiation (sunlight) that can be absorbed by the snowpack and can increase the rate of snowmelt.

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Although it has seen many changes, the company says its dedication to quality, service and delivery remains the same. “As always, Mueller Steam Specialty brand strainers and valves will continue to be the premier products of their kind in the marketplace,” Mueller Steam Specialty says.

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Mueller Steam Specialty was founded in New York City in 1956 as a small specialty manufacturer servicing the valve industry by manufacturing pipeline strainers. The company moved to North Carolina as it continued to expand, and once again in 1992 to a new, larger facility in St. Pauls, N.C.

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The transfer of water molecules between the snow surface and the atmosphere is one of the several modes of heat transfer between snow and the atmosphere. (The four major heat transfer modes being sensible heat transfer, latent heat transfer (evaporation and condensation), long wave radiation, and short-wave radiation.) Overall, the transfer of water is driven by the difference between the amount of water vapor per unit volume contained in a saturated vapor layer immediately above the snow surface and the amount of water vapor per unit volume contained in the atmosphere above. The actual rate of sublimation and condensation is controlled by the mass transfer ability of the meteorological boundary layer above the snow surface (as will be discussed below).

To help its customers control the state and flow of water, Watts offers a line of flow-control devices that range from small quarter-turn water supply stops for baths and kitchens to 110-inch double flanged butterfly valves supplied by Watts in China to the Three Gorges Dam project on the Yangtze River.

From the time of its deposition until melting, snow on the ground is a fascinating and unique material. Snow is a highly porous, sintered material made up of a continuous ice structure and a continuously connected pore space, forming together the snow microstructure. As the temperature of snow is almost always near its melting temperature, snow on the ground is in a continuous state of transformation, known as metamorphism.

Mueller Steam Specialty has supplied its line of standard products for decades. Recently, the company added custom design fabrication to its capabilities.

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A snowpack is not static. The ice crystals and grains that comprise the snowpack are constantly evolving and changing throughout the winter season. This process is called snow metamorphism.  There are two major processes of snow metamorphism that can occur. The first results from the general tendency of ice crystals to change their form to a more spherical shape. The rate of this metamorphism depends on the temperature of the snowpack. The closer the pack temperature is to 0°C (32°F) the faster metamorphism will occur. It proceeds relatively rapidly when the snowpack is melting. The second process of snowpack metamorphism is driven by vertical temperature gradients in the snowpack. The temperature gradient creates a vapor gradient which effectively moves water molecules between ice crystals by vapor transport. A strong temperature gradient through the snowpack (>10°C m-1) may result in the formation of new, relatively large, ice crystals within the snowpack termed depth hoar. This second form of metamorphism is common in the arctic but it can occur anywhere the difference between cold air temperatures and relatively warm ground temperatures are large and long lasting.

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A warm deep snow cover. Max depth can be in excess of 300 cm. Melt features (ice layers, percolation columns) very common. Coarse grained snow due to wetting ubiquitous. Basal Melting common.